Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Today we live in a world where GPS systems, digital maps, and other navigation apps are available on our smart phones._____（1）of us just walk straight into the woods without a phone. But phones_____（2）on batteries, and batteries can die faster than we realize._____（3）you get lost without a phone or a compass, and you_____（4）can't find north, a few tricks to help you navigate_____（5）to civilization, one of which is to follow the land

When you find yourself well_____（6）a trail, but not in a completely_____（7）area, you have to answer two questions: Which_____（8）is downhill, in this particular area? And where is the nearest water source? Humans overwhelmingly live in valleys, and on supplies of fresh water. _____（9）, if you head downhill, and follow any H20 you find, you should_____（10）see signs of people.

If you've explored the area before, keep an eye out for familiar sights—you may be_____（11）how quickly identifying a distinctive rock or tree can restore your bearings.

Another_____（12）: Climb high and look for signs of human habitation._____（13）, even in dense forest, you should be able to_____（14）gaps in the tree line due to roads, train tracks, and other paths people carve_____（15）the woods. Head toward these_____（16）to find a way out. At night, scan the horizon for_____（17）light sources, such as fires and streetlights, then walk toward the glow of light pollution.

_____（18）, assuming you're lost in an area humans tend to frequent, look for the_____（19）we leave on the landscape. Trail blazes, tire tracks, and other features can_____（20）you to civilization.

Financial regulators in Britain have imposed a rather unusual rule on the bosses of big banks. Starting next year, any guaranteed bonus of top executives could be delayed 10 years if their banks are under investigation for wrongdoing. The main purpose of this "clawback" rule is to hold bankers accountable restore public trust in financial institutions. Yet officials also hope for a much larger benefit: more long-term decision making, not only by banks but by all corporations, to build a stronger economy for future generations.

"Short-termism," or the desire for quick profits, has worsened in publicly trades companies, says the Bank of England's top economist, Andrew Haldane. He quotes a giant of classical economics, Alfred Marshall, in describing this financial impatience as acting like rather than putting them aside to be eaten last.

The average time for holding a stock in both the United States and Britain, he notes, has dropped from seven years to seven months in recent decades. Transient investors, who demand high quarterly profits from companies, can hinder a firm s efforts to invest in long-term research or to build up customer loyalty. This has been dubbed "quarterly capitalism".

In addition, new digital technologies have allowed more rapid trading of equities, quicker use of information at the speed of Twitter, and thus shorter attention spans in financial markets. "There seems to be a predominance of short-term thinking at the expense of long-term investing, said Commissioner Daniel Gallagher of the US Securities and Exchange Commission in a speech this week.

In the US, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has pushed most public companies to defer performance bonuses for senior executives by about a year, slightly helping reduce "short-termism" In its latest survey of CEO pay. The Wall Street Journal finds that "a substantial part" of executive pay is now tied to performance.

Much more could be done to encourage "long-termism" such as changes in the tax code and quicker disclosure of stock acquisitions. In France, shareholders who hold onto a company investment for at least two years can sometimes earn more voting rights in a company.

Within companies, the right compensation design can provide incentives for executives to think beyond their own time at the company and on behalf of all stakeholders. Britain' s new rule is a reminder to bankers that society has an interest in their performance, not just for the short term but for the long term.

According to Paragraph 1,one motive in imposing the new rule is the _____.

Financial regulators in Britain have imposed a rather unusual rule on the bosses of big banks. Starting next year, any guaranteed bonus of top executives could be delayed 10 years if their banks are under investigation for wrongdoing. The main purpose of this "clawback" rule is to hold bankers accountable restore public trust in financial institutions. Yet officials also hope for a much larger benefit: more long-term decision making, not only by banks but by all corporations, to build a stronger economy for future generations.

"Short-termism," or the desire for quick profits, has worsened in publicly trades companies, says the Bank of England's top economist, Andrew Haldane. He quotes a giant of classical economics, Alfred Marshall, in describing this financial impatience as acting like rather than putting them aside to be eaten last.

The average time for holding a stock in both the United States and Britain, he notes, has dropped from seven years to seven months in recent decades. Transient investors, who demand high quarterly profits from companies, can hinder a firm s efforts to invest in long-term research or to build up customer loyalty. This has been dubbed "quarterly capitalism".

In addition, new digital technologies have allowed more rapid trading of equities, quicker use of information at the speed of Twitter, and thus shorter attention spans in financial markets. "There seems to be a predominance of short-term thinking at the expense of long-term investing, said Commissioner Daniel Gallagher of the US Securities and Exchange Commission in a speech this week.

In the US, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has pushed most public companies to defer performance bonuses for senior executives by about a year, slightly helping reduce "short-termism" In its latest survey of CEO pay. The Wall Street Journal finds that "a substantial part" of executive pay is now tied to performance.

Much more could be done to encourage "long-termism" such as changes in the tax code and quicker disclosure of stock acquisitions. In France, shareholders who hold onto a company investment for at least two years can sometimes earn more voting rights in a company.

Within companies, the right compensation design can provide incentives for executives to think beyond their own time at the company and on behalf of all stakeholders. Britain' s new rule is a reminder to bankers that society has an interest in their performance, not just for the short term but for the long term.

Alfred Marshall is quoted to indicate _____.

Financial regulators in Britain have imposed a rather unusual rule on the bosses of big banks. Starting next year, any guaranteed bonus of top executives could be delayed 10 years if their banks are under investigation for wrongdoing. The main purpose of this "clawback" rule is to hold bankers accountable restore public trust in financial institutions. Yet officials also hope for a much larger benefit: more long-term decision making, not only by banks but by all corporations, to build a stronger economy for future generations.

"Short-termism," or the desire for quick profits, has worsened in publicly trades companies, says the Bank of England's top economist, Andrew Haldane. He quotes a giant of classical economics, Alfred Marshall, in describing this financial impatience as acting like rather than putting them aside to be eaten last.

The average time for holding a stock in both the United States and Britain, he notes, has dropped from seven years to seven months in recent decades. Transient investors, who demand high quarterly profits from companies, can hinder a firm s efforts to invest in long-term research or to build up customer loyalty. This has been dubbed "quarterly capitalism".

In addition, new digital technologies have allowed more rapid trading of equities, quicker use of information at the speed of Twitter, and thus shorter attention spans in financial markets. "There seems to be a predominance of short-term thinking at the expense of long-term investing, said Commissioner Daniel Gallagher of the US Securities and Exchange Commission in a speech this week.

In the US, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has pushed most public companies to defer performance bonuses for senior executives by about a year, slightly helping reduce "short-termism" In its latest survey of CEO pay. The Wall Street Journal finds that "a substantial part" of executive pay is now tied to performance.

Much more could be done to encourage "long-termism" such as changes in the tax code and quicker disclosure of stock acquisitions. In France, shareholders who hold onto a company investment for at least two years can sometimes earn more voting rights in a company.

Within companies, the right compensation design can provide incentives for executives to think beyond their own time at the company and on behalf of all stakeholders. Britain' s new rule is a reminder to bankers that society has an interest in their performance, not just for the short term but for the long term.

It is argued that the influence of transient investment on public companies can be _____.

Financial regulators in Britain have imposed a rather unusual rule on the bosses of big banks. Starting next year, any guaranteed bonus of top executives could be delayed 10 years if their banks are under investigation for wrongdoing. The main purpose of this "clawback" rule is to hold bankers accountable restore public trust in financial institutions. Yet officials also hope for a much larger benefit: more long-term decision making, not only by banks but by all corporations, to build a stronger economy for future generations.

"Short-termism," or the desire for quick profits, has worsened in publicly trades companies, says the Bank of England's top economist, Andrew Haldane. He quotes a giant of classical economics, Alfred Marshall, in describing this financial impatience as acting like rather than putting them aside to be eaten last.

The average time for holding a stock in both the United States and Britain, he notes, has dropped from seven years to seven months in recent decades. Transient investors, who demand high quarterly profits from companies, can hinder a firm s efforts to invest in long-term research or to build up customer loyalty. This has been dubbed "quarterly capitalism".

In addition, new digital technologies have allowed more rapid trading of equities, quicker use of information at the speed of Twitter, and thus shorter attention spans in financial markets. "There seems to be a predominance of short-term thinking at the expense of long-term investing, said Commissioner Daniel Gallagher of the US Securities and Exchange Commission in a speech this week.

In the US, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has pushed most public companies to defer performance bonuses for senior executives by about a year, slightly helping reduce "short-termism" In its latest survey of CEO pay. The Wall Street Journal finds that "a substantial part" of executive pay is now tied to performance.

Much more could be done to encourage "long-termism" such as changes in the tax code and quicker disclosure of stock acquisitions. In France, shareholders who hold onto a company investment for at least two years can sometimes earn more voting rights in a company.

Within companies, the right compensation design can provide incentives for executives to think beyond their own time at the company and on behalf of all stakeholders. Britain' s new rule is a reminder to bankers that society has an interest in their performance, not just for the short term but for the long term.

The US and France examples and used to illustrate _____.

Financial regulators in Britain have imposed a rather unusual rule on the bosses of big banks. Starting next year, any guaranteed bonus of top executives could be delayed 10 years if their banks are under investigation for wrongdoing. The main purpose of this "clawback" rule is to hold bankers accountable restore public trust in financial institutions. Yet officials also hope for a much larger benefit: more long-term decision making, not only by banks but by all corporations, to build a stronger economy for future generations.

"Short-termism," or the desire for quick profits, has worsened in publicly trades companies, says the Bank of England's top economist, Andrew Haldane. He quotes a giant of classical economics, Alfred Marshall, in describing this financial impatience as acting like rather than putting them aside to be eaten last.

The average time for holding a stock in both the United States and Britain, he notes, has dropped from seven years to seven months in recent decades. Transient investors, who demand high quarterly profits from companies, can hinder a firm s efforts to invest in long-term research or to build up customer loyalty. This has been dubbed "quarterly capitalism".

In addition, new digital technologies have allowed more rapid trading of equities, quicker use of information at the speed of Twitter, and thus shorter attention spans in financial markets. "There seems to be a predominance of short-term thinking at the expense of long-term investing, said Commissioner Daniel Gallagher of the US Securities and Exchange Commission in a speech this week.

In the US, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 has pushed most public companies to defer performance bonuses for senior executives by about a year, slightly helping reduce "short-termism" In its latest survey of CEO pay. The Wall Street Journal finds that "a substantial part" of executive pay is now tied to performance.

Much more could be done to encourage "long-termism" such as changes in the tax code and quicker disclosure of stock acquisitions. In France, shareholders who hold onto a company investment for at least two years can sometimes earn more voting rights in a company.

Within companies, the right compensation design can provide incentives for executives to think beyond their own time at the company and on behalf of all stakeholders. Britain' s new rule is a reminder to bankers that society has an interest in their performance, not just for the short term but for the long term.

Which of the following would be the best title for the text? 

Over the course of the past three decades, the A has become the most common grade given out on American college campuses. In 2015, 42 percent of grades were top marks, compared to 31 percent in 1988.

This trend of grade inflation—the gradual increase in average GP As over the past few decades—is often considered a product of a consumer era in higher education, in which students are treated like customers to be pleased. But another, related force—a policy often buried deep in course catalogs called "grade forgiveness"—is helping raise grade-point averages. Different schools' policies can work in slightly different ways, but in general, grade forgiveness allows students to retake a course in which they received a low grade, and the most recent grade or the highest grade is the only one that counts in calculating a student's overall GPA. (Both grades still appear on the student's transcript.)

The use of this little-known practice has accelerated in recent years, as colleges continue to do their utmost to keep students in school (and paying tuition) and improve their graduation rates. According to a forthcoming survey by the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, a trade group, some 91 percent of undergraduate colleges and 80 percent of graduate and professional schools permit students to repeat courses to improve a grade. When this practice first started decades ago, it was usually limited to freshmen, to give them a second chance to take a class in their first year if they struggled in their transition to college-level courses. But now most colleges, save for many selective campuses, allow all undergraduates, and even graduate students, to get their low grades forgiven.

The rise of grade forgiveness scans as yet another instance of colleges treating students as customers to be satisfied—similar to campus amenities such as luxurious dorms, palatial recreational facilities, and cornucopian dining halls. Indeed, there seems to be demand for do-overs. "Students are asking for it," said Jack Miner, Ohio State University's registrar and executive director of enrollment services. "We're attracting and, retaining stronger students and there's more competition to get into majors and graduate schools, and a small change in their GPA can help."

Ohio State expanded its grade-forgiveness policy three years ago to cover all undergraduates instead of just freshmen. Miner says that about 4,500 students roughly 10 percent of Ohio State's undergraduate population—take advantage of the policy in any given year. Most students see their grades rise in the second attempt, usually a full letter grade or a full letter and a half, Miner said. Still, about 15 percent of students who receive a failing grade in, the first attempt have the same outcome in the second. "That's a wake-up call for those students that maybe they need to reconsider their major," Miner said.

Miner is generally optimistic about the promise of grade forgiveness, but others are concerned about what it could do to academic dynamics. "It teaches students that their work in a course doesn't matter because there's always another chance," said Jonathan Marx, a professor of sociology at Winthrop University, in South Carolina.

Marx and his colleague David Meeler, an associate professor of philosophy, have studied grade-forgiveness programs at eight public institutions in an unnamed southern state. What they found in a study published in 2013 is that 5 percent of the seniors they polled at one of the institutions used grade-forgiveness policies to keep anywhere from a quarter to half of all of their coursework from counting toward their GPA One student highlighted in the study repeated five different courses for better grades, including a math class in which she was eventually able to raise her grade from a D to an A-minus.

"Everyone knows about grade inflation, but this is GPA distortion, and few people looking at a student's GPA know it happens," Meeler said. He and Marx told me they have nothing against giving students second chances, but their issue is with the colleges that, say, allow a student to repeat five courses as they please. "Institutions are allowing students to manage their grades to get the highest reward," Meeler said, as opposed to requiring students to work with faculty members to master the material.

At the University of Colorado Boulder, such concerns led faculty members to eliminate grade forgiveness in 2010. Professors at the time were worried about the fairness of the policy—they noticed that students in some majors were using it more than those in others, and that a freshman-oriented rule was being used regularly by upperclassmen. But now, as other colleges adopt or expand such policies, Colorado is considering reinstating the practice. "We're weighing how to foster student success to help them achieve their goals," said Kristi Wold-McCormick, the university's registrar. "We are not trying to alter academic history. It gives the student a chance to tell their story, about how they overcame a mistake or a struggle."

College officials also tend to emphasize that the goal of grade forgiveness is less about the grade itself and more about encouraging students to retake courses critical to their degree program and graduation without incurring a big 'penalty. "Ultimately," Ohio State's Miner said, "we see students achieve more success because they retake a course and do better in subsequent courses or master the content that allows them to graduate on time."

That said, there is a way in which grade forgiveness satisfies colleges' own needs as well. For public institutions, state appropriations are sometimes tied partly to their success on metrics such as graduation rates and student retention so better grades can, by boosting figures like those, mean more money. And anything that raises GPAs will-likely make students -who, at the end of the day, are paying the bill—feel they've gotten a better value for their tuition dollars, which is another big concern for colleges.

Indeed, grade, forgiveness is just another way that universities are responding to consumers' expectations for higher education. Since students and parents expect a college degree to lead to a job, it is in the best interest of a school to churn out graduates who are as qualified as possible—or at least appear to be. On this, students' and colleges' incentives seem to be aligned.

What is commonly regarded as the cause of grade inflation? 

Over the course of the past three decades, the A has become the most common grade given out on American college campuses. In 2015, 42 percent of grades were top marks, compared to 31 percent in 1988.

This trend of grade inflation—the gradual increase in average GP As over the past few decades—is often considered a product of a consumer era in higher education, in which students are treated like customers to be pleased. But another, related force—a policy often buried deep in course catalogs called "grade forgiveness"—is helping raise grade-point averages. Different schools' policies can work in slightly different ways, but in general, grade forgiveness allows students to retake a course in which they received a low grade, and the most recent grade or the highest grade is the only one that counts in calculating a student's overall GPA. (Both grades still appear on the student's transcript.)

The use of this little-known practice has accelerated in recent years, as colleges continue to do their utmost to keep students in school (and paying tuition) and improve their graduation rates. According to a forthcoming survey by the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, a trade group, some 91 percent of undergraduate colleges and 80 percent of graduate and professional schools permit students to repeat courses to improve a grade. When this practice first started decades ago, it was usually limited to freshmen, to give them a second chance to take a class in their first year if they struggled in their transition to college-level courses. But now most colleges, save for many selective campuses, allow all undergraduates, and even graduate students, to get their low grades forgiven.

The rise of grade forgiveness scans as yet another instance of colleges treating students as customers to be satisfied—similar to campus amenities such as luxurious dorms, palatial recreational facilities, and cornucopian dining halls. Indeed, there seems to be demand for do-overs. "Students are asking for it," said Jack Miner, Ohio State University's registrar and executive director of enrollment services. "We're attracting and, retaining stronger students and there's more competition to get into majors and graduate schools, and a small change in their GPA can help."

Ohio State expanded its grade-forgiveness policy three years ago to cover all undergraduates instead of just freshmen. Miner says that about 4,500 students roughly 10 percent of Ohio State's undergraduate population—take advantage of the policy in any given year. Most students see their grades rise in the second attempt, usually a full letter grade or a full letter and a half, Miner said. Still, about 15 percent of students who receive a failing grade in, the first attempt have the same outcome in the second. "That's a wake-up call for those students that maybe they need to reconsider their major," Miner said.

Miner is generally optimistic about the promise of grade forgiveness, but others are concerned about what it could do to academic dynamics. "It teaches students that their work in a course doesn't matter because there's always another chance," said Jonathan Marx, a professor of sociology at Winthrop University, in South Carolina.

Marx and his colleague David Meeler, an associate professor of philosophy, have studied grade-forgiveness programs at eight public institutions in an unnamed southern state. What they found in a study published in 2013 is that 5 percent of the seniors they polled at one of the institutions used grade-forgiveness policies to keep anywhere from a quarter to half of all of their coursework from counting toward their GPA One student highlighted in the study repeated five different courses for better grades, including a math class in which she was eventually able to raise her grade from a D to an A-minus.

"Everyone knows about grade inflation, but this is GPA distortion, and few people looking at a student's GPA know it happens," Meeler said. He and Marx told me they have nothing against giving students second chances, but their issue is with the colleges that, say, allow a student to repeat five courses as they please. "Institutions are allowing students to manage their grades to get the highest reward," Meeler said, as opposed to requiring students to work with faculty members to master the material.

At the University of Colorado Boulder, such concerns led faculty members to eliminate grade forgiveness in 2010. Professors at the time were worried about the fairness of the policy—they noticed that students in some majors were using it more than those in others, and that a freshman-oriented rule was being used regularly by upperclassmen. But now, as other colleges adopt or expand such policies, Colorado is considering reinstating the practice. "We're weighing how to foster student success to help them achieve their goals," said Kristi Wold-McCormick, the university's registrar. "We are not trying to alter academic history. It gives the student a chance to tell their story, about how they overcame a mistake or a struggle."

College officials also tend to emphasize that the goal of grade forgiveness is less about the grade itself and more about encouraging students to retake courses critical to their degree program and graduation without incurring a big 'penalty. "Ultimately," Ohio State's Miner said, "we see students achieve more success because they retake a course and do better in subsequent courses or master the content that allows them to graduate on time."

That said, there is a way in which grade forgiveness satisfies colleges' own needs as well. For public institutions, state appropriations are sometimes tied partly to their success on metrics such as graduation rates and student retention so better grades can, by boosting figures like those, mean more money. And anything that raises GPAs will-likely make students -who, at the end of the day, are paying the bill—feel they've gotten a better value for their tuition dollars, which is another big concern for colleges.

Indeed, grade, forgiveness is just another way that universities are responding to consumers' expectations for higher education. Since students and parents expect a college degree to lead to a job, it is in the best interest of a school to churn out graduates who are as qualified as possible—or at least appear to be. On this, students' and colleges' incentives seem to be aligned.

What was the original purpose of grade forgiveness? 

Over the course of the past three decades, the A has become the most common grade given out on American college campuses. In 2015, 42 percent of grades were top marks, compared to 31 percent in 1988.

This trend of grade inflation—the gradual increase in average GP As over the past few decades—is often considered a product of a consumer era in higher education, in which students are treated like customers to be pleased. But another, related force—a policy often buried deep in course catalogs called "grade forgiveness"—is helping raise grade-point averages. Different schools' policies can work in slightly different ways, but in general, grade forgiveness allows students to retake a course in which they received a low grade, and the most recent grade or the highest grade is the only one that counts in calculating a student's overall GPA. (Both grades still appear on the student's transcript.)

The use of this little-known practice has accelerated in recent years, as colleges continue to do their utmost to keep students in school (and paying tuition) and improve their graduation rates. According to a forthcoming survey by the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, a trade group, some 91 percent of undergraduate colleges and 80 percent of graduate and professional schools permit students to repeat courses to improve a grade. When this practice first started decades ago, it was usually limited to freshmen, to give them a second chance to take a class in their first year if they struggled in their transition to college-level courses. But now most colleges, save for many selective campuses, allow all undergraduates, and even graduate students, to get their low grades forgiven.

The rise of grade forgiveness scans as yet another instance of colleges treating students as customers to be satisfied—similar to campus amenities such as luxurious dorms, palatial recreational facilities, and cornucopian dining halls. Indeed, there seems to be demand for do-overs. "Students are asking for it," said Jack Miner, Ohio State University's registrar and executive director of enrollment services. "We're attracting and, retaining stronger students and there's more competition to get into majors and graduate schools, and a small change in their GPA can help."

Ohio State expanded its grade-forgiveness policy three years ago to cover all undergraduates instead of just freshmen. Miner says that about 4,500 students roughly 10 percent of Ohio State's undergraduate population—take advantage of the policy in any given year. Most students see their grades rise in the second attempt, usually a full letter grade or a full letter and a half, Miner said. Still, about 15 percent of students who receive a failing grade in, the first attempt have the same outcome in the second. "That's a wake-up call for those students that maybe they need to reconsider their major," Miner said.

Miner is generally optimistic about the promise of grade forgiveness, but others are concerned about what it could do to academic dynamics. "It teaches students that their work in a course doesn't matter because there's always another chance," said Jonathan Marx, a professor of sociology at Winthrop University, in South Carolina.

Marx and his colleague David Meeler, an associate professor of philosophy, have studied grade-forgiveness programs at eight public institutions in an unnamed southern state. What they found in a study published in 2013 is that 5 percent of the seniors they polled at one of the institutions used grade-forgiveness policies to keep anywhere from a quarter to half of all of their coursework from counting toward their GPA One student highlighted in the study repeated five different courses for better grades, including a math class in which she was eventually able to raise her grade from a D to an A-minus.

"Everyone knows about grade inflation, but this is GPA distortion, and few people looking at a student's GPA know it happens," Meeler said. He and Marx told me they have nothing against giving students second chances, but their issue is with the colleges that, say, allow a student to repeat five courses as they please. "Institutions are allowing students to manage their grades to get the highest reward," Meeler said, as opposed to requiring students to work with faculty members to master the material.

At the University of Colorado Boulder, such concerns led faculty members to eliminate grade forgiveness in 2010. Professors at the time were worried about the fairness of the policy—they noticed that students in some majors were using it more than those in others, and that a freshman-oriented rule was being used regularly by upperclassmen. But now, as other colleges adopt or expand such policies, Colorado is considering reinstating the practice. "We're weighing how to foster student success to help them achieve their goals," said Kristi Wold-McCormick, the university's registrar. "We are not trying to alter academic history. It gives the student a chance to tell their story, about how they overcame a mistake or a struggle."

College officials also tend to emphasize that the goal of grade forgiveness is less about the grade itself and more about encouraging students to retake courses critical to their degree program and graduation without incurring a big 'penalty. "Ultimately," Ohio State's Miner said, "we see students achieve more success because they retake a course and do better in subsequent courses or master the content that allows them to graduate on time."

That said, there is a way in which grade forgiveness satisfies colleges' own needs as well. For public institutions, state appropriations are sometimes tied partly to their success on metrics such as graduation rates and student retention so better grades can, by boosting figures like those, mean more money. And anything that raises GPAs will-likely make students -who, at the end of the day, are paying the bill—feel they've gotten a better value for their tuition dollars, which is another big concern for colleges.

Indeed, grade, forgiveness is just another way that universities are responding to consumers' expectations for higher education. Since students and parents expect a college degree to lead to a job, it is in the best interest of a school to churn out graduates who are as qualified as possible—or at least appear to be. On this, students' and colleges' incentives seem to be aligned.

According to Paragraph 5, grade forgiveness enables colleges to _____.

Over the course of the past three decades, the A has become the most common grade given out on American college campuses. In 2015, 42 percent of grades were top marks, compared to 31 percent in 1988.

This trend of grade inflation—the gradual increase in average GP As over the past few decades—is often considered a product of a consumer era in higher education, in which students are treated like customers to be pleased. But another, related force—a policy often buried deep in course catalogs called "grade forgiveness"—is helping raise grade-point averages. Different schools' policies can work in slightly different ways, but in general, grade forgiveness allows students to retake a course in which they received a low grade, and the most recent grade or the highest grade is the only one that counts in calculating a student's overall GPA. (Both grades still appear on the student's transcript.)

The use of this little-known practice has accelerated in recent years, as colleges continue to do their utmost to keep students in school (and paying tuition) and improve their graduation rates. According to a forthcoming survey by the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, a trade group, some 91 percent of undergraduate colleges and 80 percent of graduate and professional schools permit students to repeat courses to improve a grade. When this practice first started decades ago, it was usually limited to freshmen, to give them a second chance to take a class in their first year if they struggled in their transition to college-level courses. But now most colleges, save for many selective campuses, allow all undergraduates, and even graduate students, to get their low grades forgiven.

The rise of grade forgiveness scans as yet another instance of colleges treating students as customers to be satisfied—similar to campus amenities such as luxurious dorms, palatial recreational facilities, and cornucopian dining halls. Indeed, there seems to be demand for do-overs. "Students are asking for it," said Jack Miner, Ohio State University's registrar and executive director of enrollment services. "We're attracting and, retaining stronger students and there's more competition to get into majors and graduate schools, and a small change in their GPA can help."

Ohio State expanded its grade-forgiveness policy three years ago to cover all undergraduates instead of just freshmen. Miner says that about 4,500 students roughly 10 percent of Ohio State's undergraduate population—take advantage of the policy in any given year. Most students see their grades rise in the second attempt, usually a full letter grade or a full letter and a half, Miner said. Still, about 15 percent of students who receive a failing grade in, the first attempt have the same outcome in the second. "That's a wake-up call for those students that maybe they need to reconsider their major," Miner said.

Miner is generally optimistic about the promise of grade forgiveness, but others are concerned about what it could do to academic dynamics. "It teaches students that their work in a course doesn't matter because there's always another chance," said Jonathan Marx, a professor of sociology at Winthrop University, in South Carolina.

Marx and his colleague David Meeler, an associate professor of philosophy, have studied grade-forgiveness programs at eight public institutions in an unnamed southern state. What they found in a study published in 2013 is that 5 percent of the seniors they polled at one of the institutions used grade-forgiveness policies to keep anywhere from a quarter to half of all of their coursework from counting toward their GPA One student highlighted in the study repeated five different courses for better grades, including a math class in which she was eventually able to raise her grade from a D to an A-minus.

"Everyone knows about grade inflation, but this is GPA distortion, and few people looking at a student's GPA know it happens," Meeler said. He and Marx told me they have nothing against giving students second chances, but their issue is with the colleges that, say, allow a student to repeat five courses as they please. "Institutions are allowing students to manage their grades to get the highest reward," Meeler said, as opposed to requiring students to work with faculty members to master the material.

At the University of Colorado Boulder, such concerns led faculty members to eliminate grade forgiveness in 2010. Professors at the time were worried about the fairness of the policy—they noticed that students in some majors were using it more than those in others, and that a freshman-oriented rule was being used regularly by upperclassmen. But now, as other colleges adopt or expand such policies, Colorado is considering reinstating the practice. "We're weighing how to foster student success to help them achieve their goals," said Kristi Wold-McCormick, the university's registrar. "We are not trying to alter academic history. It gives the student a chance to tell their story, about how they overcame a mistake or a struggle."

College officials also tend to emphasize that the goal of grade forgiveness is less about the grade itself and more about encouraging students to retake courses critical to their degree program and graduation without incurring a big 'penalty. "Ultimately," Ohio State's Miner said, "we see students achieve more success because they retake a course and do better in subsequent courses or master the content that allows them to graduate on time."

That said, there is a way in which grade forgiveness satisfies colleges' own needs as well. For public institutions, state appropriations are sometimes tied partly to their success on metrics such as graduation rates and student retention so better grades can, by boosting figures like those, mean more money. And anything that raises GPAs will-likely make students -who, at the end of the day, are paying the bill—feel they've gotten a better value for their tuition dollars, which is another big concern for colleges.

Indeed, grade, forgiveness is just another way that universities are responding to consumers' expectations for higher education. Since students and parents expect a college degree to lead to a job, it is in the best interest of a school to churn out graduates who are as qualified as possible—or at least appear to be. On this, students' and colleges' incentives seem to be aligned.

What does the phrase “to be aligned” (Line 5, Para. 6) most probably mean? 

Over the course of the past three decades, the A has become the most common grade given out on American college campuses. In 2015, 42 percent of grades were top marks, compared to 31 percent in 1988.

This trend of grade inflation—the gradual increase in average GP As over the past few decades—is often considered a product of a consumer era in higher education, in which students are treated like customers to be pleased. But another, related force—a policy often buried deep in course catalogs called "grade forgiveness"—is helping raise grade-point averages. Different schools' policies can work in slightly different ways, but in general, grade forgiveness allows students to retake a course in which they received a low grade, and the most recent grade or the highest grade is the only one that counts in calculating a student's overall GPA. (Both grades still appear on the student's transcript.)

The use of this little-known practice has accelerated in recent years, as colleges continue to do their utmost to keep students in school (and paying tuition) and improve their graduation rates. According to a forthcoming survey by the American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, a trade group, some 91 percent of undergraduate colleges and 80 percent of graduate and professional schools permit students to repeat courses to improve a grade. When this practice first started decades ago, it was usually limited to freshmen, to give them a second chance to take a class in their first year if they struggled in their transition to college-level courses. But now most colleges, save for many selective campuses, allow all undergraduates, and even graduate students, to get their low grades forgiven.

The rise of grade forgiveness scans as yet another instance of colleges treating students as customers to be satisfied—similar to campus amenities such as luxurious dorms, palatial recreational facilities, and cornucopian dining halls. Indeed, there seems to be demand for do-overs. "Students are asking for it," said Jack Miner, Ohio State University's registrar and executive director of enrollment services. "We're attracting and, retaining stronger students and there's more competition to get into majors and graduate schools, and a small change in their GPA can help."

Ohio State expanded its grade-forgiveness policy three years ago to cover all undergraduates instead of just freshmen. Miner says that about 4,500 students roughly 10 percent of Ohio State's undergraduate population—take advantage of the policy in any given year. Most students see their grades rise in the second attempt, usually a full letter grade or a full letter and a half, Miner said. Still, about 15 percent of students who receive a failing grade in, the first attempt have the same outcome in the second. "That's a wake-up call for those students that maybe they need to reconsider their major," Miner said.

Miner is generally optimistic about the promise of grade forgiveness, but others are concerned about what it could do to academic dynamics. "It teaches students that their work in a course doesn't matter because there's always another chance," said Jonathan Marx, a professor of sociology at Winthrop University, in South Carolina.

Marx and his colleague David Meeler, an associate professor of philosophy, have studied grade-forgiveness programs at eight public institutions in an unnamed southern state. What they found in a study published in 2013 is that 5 percent of the seniors they polled at one of the institutions used grade-forgiveness policies to keep anywhere from a quarter to half of all of their coursework from counting toward their GPA One student highlighted in the study repeated five different courses for better grades, including a math class in which she was eventually able to raise her grade from a D to an A-minus.

"Everyone knows about grade inflation, but this is GPA distortion, and few people looking at a student's GPA know it happens," Meeler said. He and Marx told me they have nothing against giving students second chances, but their issue is with the colleges that, say, allow a student to repeat five courses as they please. "Institutions are allowing students to manage their grades to get the highest reward," Meeler said, as opposed to requiring students to work with faculty members to master the material.

At the University of Colorado Boulder, such concerns led faculty members to eliminate grade forgiveness in 2010. Professors at the time were worried about the fairness of the policy—they noticed that students in some majors were using it more than those in others, and that a freshman-oriented rule was being used regularly by upperclassmen. But now, as other colleges adopt or expand such policies, Colorado is considering reinstating the practice. "We're weighing how to foster student success to help them achieve their goals," said Kristi Wold-McCormick, the university's registrar. "We are not trying to alter academic history. It gives the student a chance to tell their story, about how they overcame a mistake or a struggle."

College officials also tend to emphasize that the goal of grade forgiveness is less about the grade itself and more about encouraging students to retake courses critical to their degree program and graduation without incurring a big 'penalty. "Ultimately," Ohio State's Miner said, "we see students achieve more success because they retake a course and do better in subsequent courses or master the content that allows them to graduate on time."

That said, there is a way in which grade forgiveness satisfies colleges' own needs as well. For public institutions, state appropriations are sometimes tied partly to their success on metrics such as graduation rates and student retention so better grades can, by boosting figures like those, mean more money. And anything that raises GPAs will-likely make students -who, at the end of the day, are paying the bill—feel they've gotten a better value for their tuition dollars, which is another big concern for colleges.

Indeed, grade, forgiveness is just another way that universities are responding to consumers' expectations for higher education. Since students and parents expect a college degree to lead to a job, it is in the best interest of a school to churn out graduates who are as qualified as possible—or at least appear to be. On this, students' and colleges' incentives seem to be aligned.

The author examines the practice of grade forgiveness by _____.

This year marks exactly two centuries since the publication of Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Shelley. Even before the invention of the electric light bulb, the author produced a remarkable work of speculative fiction that would foreshadow many ethical questions to be raised by technologies yet to come.

Today the rapid growth of artificial intelligence (AI) raises fundamental questions: "What is intelligence, identity, or consciousness? What makes humans humans?"

What is being called artificial general intelligence, machines that would imitate the way humans think, continues to evade scientists. Yet humans remain fascinated by the idea of robots that would look, move, and respond like humans, similar to those recently depicted on popular sci-fi TV series such as "Westworld" and "Humans".

Just how people think is still far too complex to be understood, let alone reproduced, says David Eagleman, a Stanford University neuroscientist. "We are just in a situation where there are no good theories explaining what consciousness actually is and how you could ever build a machine to get there."

But that doesn' t mean crucial ethical issues involving AI aren' t at hand the coming use of autonomous vehicles, for example, poses thorny ethical questions. Human drivers sometimes must make split-second decisions. Their reactions may be a complex combination of instant reflexes, input from past driving experiences, and what their eyes and ears tell them in that moment. AI "vision" today is not nearly as sophisticated as that of humans. And to anticipated every imaginable driving situation is a difficult programming problem.

Whenever decisions are based on masses of data, "you quickly get into a lot of ethical questions," notes Tan Kiat How, chief executive of a Singapore-based agency that is helping the government develop a voluntary code for the ethical use of AL. Along with Singapore, other governments and mega-corporations are beginning to establish their own guidelines. Britain is setting up a data ethics center, India released its AI ethics strategy this spring.

On June 7 Google pledged not to "design or deploy AI" that would cause "overall harm," or to develop AI-directed weapons or use AI for surveillance that would violate international norms. It also pledged not to deploy AI whose use would violate international laws or human rights.

While the statement is vague, it represents one starting point. So does the idea that decisions made by AI systems should be explainable, transparent, and fair.

To put it another way: How can we make sure that the thinking of intelligent machines reflects humanity' s highest values? Only then will they be useful servants and not Frankenstein' s out-of-control monster.

Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein is mentioned because it _____.

This year marks exactly two centuries since the publication of Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Shelley. Even before the invention of the electric light bulb, the author produced a remarkable work of speculative fiction that would foreshadow many ethical questions to be raised by technologies yet to come.

Today the rapid growth of artificial intelligence (AI) raises fundamental questions: "What is intelligence, identity, or consciousness? What makes humans humans?"

What is being called artificial general intelligence, machines that would imitate the way humans think, continues to evade scientists. Yet humans remain fascinated by the idea of robots that would look, move, and respond like humans, similar to those recently depicted on popular sci-fi TV series such as "Westworld" and "Humans".

Just how people think is still far too complex to be understood, let alone reproduced, says David Eagleman, a Stanford University neuroscientist. "We are just in a situation where there are no good theories explaining what consciousness actually is and how you could ever build a machine to get there."

But that doesn' t mean crucial ethical issues involving AI aren' t at hand the coming use of autonomous vehicles, for example, poses thorny ethical questions. Human drivers sometimes must make split-second decisions. Their reactions may be a complex combination of instant reflexes, input from past driving experiences, and what their eyes and ears tell them in that moment. AI "vision" today is not nearly as sophisticated as that of humans. And to anticipated every imaginable driving situation is a difficult programming problem.

Whenever decisions are based on masses of data, "you quickly get into a lot of ethical questions," notes Tan Kiat How, chief executive of a Singapore-based agency that is helping the government develop a voluntary code for the ethical use of AL. Along with Singapore, other governments and mega-corporations are beginning to establish their own guidelines. Britain is setting up a data ethics center, India released its AI ethics strategy this spring.

On June 7 Google pledged not to "design or deploy AI" that would cause "overall harm," or to develop AI-directed weapons or use AI for surveillance that would violate international norms. It also pledged not to deploy AI whose use would violate international laws or human rights.

While the statement is vague, it represents one starting point. So does the idea that decisions made by AI systems should be explainable, transparent, and fair.

To put it another way: How can we make sure that the thinking of intelligent machines reflects humanity' s highest values? Only then will they be useful servants and not Frankenstein' s out-of-control monster.

In David Eagleman's opinion, our current knowledge of consciousness _____.

This year marks exactly two centuries since the publication of Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Shelley. Even before the invention of the electric light bulb, the author produced a remarkable work of speculative fiction that would foreshadow many ethical questions to be raised by technologies yet to come.

Today the rapid growth of artificial intelligence (AI) raises fundamental questions: "What is intelligence, identity, or consciousness? What makes humans humans?"

What is being called artificial general intelligence, machines that would imitate the way humans think, continues to evade scientists. Yet humans remain fascinated by the idea of robots that would look, move, and respond like humans, similar to those recently depicted on popular sci-fi TV series such as "Westworld" and "Humans".

Just how people think is still far too complex to be understood, let alone reproduced, says David Eagleman, a Stanford University neuroscientist. "We are just in a situation where there are no good theories explaining what consciousness actually is and how you could ever build a machine to get there."

But that doesn' t mean crucial ethical issues involving AI aren' t at hand the coming use of autonomous vehicles, for example, poses thorny ethical questions. Human drivers sometimes must make split-second decisions. Their reactions may be a complex combination of instant reflexes, input from past driving experiences, and what their eyes and ears tell them in that moment. AI "vision" today is not nearly as sophisticated as that of humans. And to anticipated every imaginable driving situation is a difficult programming problem.

Whenever decisions are based on masses of data, "you quickly get into a lot of ethical questions," notes Tan Kiat How, chief executive of a Singapore-based agency that is helping the government develop a voluntary code for the ethical use of AL. Along with Singapore, other governments and mega-corporations are beginning to establish their own guidelines. Britain is setting up a data ethics center, India released its AI ethics strategy this spring.

On June 7 Google pledged not to "design or deploy AI" that would cause "overall harm," or to develop AI-directed weapons or use AI for surveillance that would violate international norms. It also pledged not to deploy AI whose use would violate international laws or human rights.

While the statement is vague, it represents one starting point. So does the idea that decisions made by AI systems should be explainable, transparent, and fair.

To put it another way: How can we make sure that the thinking of intelligent machines reflects humanity' s highest values? Only then will they be useful servants and not Frankenstein' s out-of-control monster.

The solution to the ethical issues brought by autonomous vehicles _____.

This year marks exactly two centuries since the publication of Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Shelley. Even before the invention of the electric light bulb, the author produced a remarkable work of speculative fiction that would foreshadow many ethical questions to be raised by technologies yet to come.

Today the rapid growth of artificial intelligence (AI) raises fundamental questions: "What is intelligence, identity, or consciousness? What makes humans humans?"

What is being called artificial general intelligence, machines that would imitate the way humans think, continues to evade scientists. Yet humans remain fascinated by the idea of robots that would look, move, and respond like humans, similar to those recently depicted on popular sci-fi TV series such as "Westworld" and "Humans".

Just how people think is still far too complex to be understood, let alone reproduced, says David Eagleman, a Stanford University neuroscientist. "We are just in a situation where there are no good theories explaining what consciousness actually is and how you could ever build a machine to get there."

But that doesn' t mean crucial ethical issues involving AI aren' t at hand the coming use of autonomous vehicles, for example, poses thorny ethical questions. Human drivers sometimes must make split-second decisions. Their reactions may be a complex combination of instant reflexes, input from past driving experiences, and what their eyes and ears tell them in that moment. AI "vision" today is not nearly as sophisticated as that of humans. And to anticipated every imaginable driving situation is a difficult programming problem.

Whenever decisions are based on masses of data, "you quickly get into a lot of ethical questions," notes Tan Kiat How, chief executive of a Singapore-based agency that is helping the government develop a voluntary code for the ethical use of AL. Along with Singapore, other governments and mega-corporations are beginning to establish their own guidelines. Britain is setting up a data ethics center, India released its AI ethics strategy this spring.

On June 7 Google pledged not to "design or deploy AI" that would cause "overall harm," or to develop AI-directed weapons or use AI for surveillance that would violate international norms. It also pledged not to deploy AI whose use would violate international laws or human rights.

While the statement is vague, it represents one starting point. So does the idea that decisions made by AI systems should be explainable, transparent, and fair.

To put it another way: How can we make sure that the thinking of intelligent machines reflects humanity' s highest values? Only then will they be useful servants and not Frankenstein' s out-of-control monster.

The authors attitude toward Google's pledges is one of _____.

This year marks exactly two centuries since the publication of Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus, by Mary Shelley. Even before the invention of the electric light bulb, the author produced a remarkable work of speculative fiction that would foreshadow many ethical questions to be raised by technologies yet to come.

Today the rapid growth of artificial intelligence (AI) raises fundamental questions: "What is intelligence, identity, or consciousness? What makes humans humans?"

What is being called artificial general intelligence, machines that would imitate the way humans think, continues to evade scientists. Yet humans remain fascinated by the idea of robots that would look, move, and respond like humans, similar to those recently depicted on popular sci-fi TV series such as "Westworld" and "Humans".

Just how people think is still far too complex to be understood, let alone reproduced, says David Eagleman, a Stanford University neuroscientist. "We are just in a situation where there are no good theories explaining what consciousness actually is and how you could ever build a machine to get there."

But that doesn' t mean crucial ethical issues involving AI aren' t at hand the coming use of autonomous vehicles, for example, poses thorny ethical questions. Human drivers sometimes must make split-second decisions. Their reactions may be a complex combination of instant reflexes, input from past driving experiences, and what their eyes and ears tell them in that moment. AI "vision" today is not nearly as sophisticated as that of humans. And to anticipated every imaginable driving situation is a difficult programming problem.

Whenever decisions are based on masses of data, "you quickly get into a lot of ethical questions," notes Tan Kiat How, chief executive of a Singapore-based agency that is helping the government develop a voluntary code for the ethical use of AL. Along with Singapore, other governments and mega-corporations are beginning to establish their own guidelines. Britain is setting up a data ethics center, India released its AI ethics strategy this spring.

On June 7 Google pledged not to "design or deploy AI" that would cause "overall harm," or to develop AI-directed weapons or use AI for surveillance that would violate international norms. It also pledged not to deploy AI whose use would violate international laws or human rights.

While the statement is vague, it represents one starting point. So does the idea that decisions made by AI systems should be explainable, transparent, and fair.

To put it another way: How can we make sure that the thinking of intelligent machines reflects humanity' s highest values? Only then will they be useful servants and not Frankenstein' s out-of-control monster.

Which of the following would be the best title for the text?

States will be able to force more people to pay sales tax when they make online purchases under a Supreme Court decision Thursday that will leave shoppers with lighter wallets but is a big financial win for states.

The Superme Court' s opinion Thursday overruled a pair of decades-old decisions that states said cost them billions of dollars in lost revenue annually. The decisions made it more difficult for states to collect sales tax on certain online purchases.

The cases the court overturned said that if a business was shipping a customer' s purchase to a state where the business didn't have a physical presence such as a warehouse or office, the business didn' t have to collect sales tax for the state. Customers were generally responsible for paying the sales tax to the state themselves if they weren't charged it, but most didn' t realize they owed it and few paid.

Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote that the previous decisions were flawed. "Each year the physical presence rule becomes further removed from economic reality and results in significant revenue losses to the States," he wrote in an opinion joined by four other justices. Kennedy wrote that the rule "limited states' ability to seek long-term prosperity and has prevented market participants from competing on an even playing field."

The ruling is a victory for big chains with a presence in many states, since they usually collect sales tax on online purchases already. Now, rivals will be charging sales tax where they hadn' t before. Big chains have been collecting sales tax nationwide because they typically have physical stores in whatever state a purchase is being shipped to. Amazon.com, with its network of warehouses, also collects sales tax in every state that charges it, though third-party sellers who use the site don't have to.

Until now, many sellers that have a physical presence in only a single state or a few states have been able to avoid charging sales taxes when they ship to addresses outside those states. Sellers that use eBay and Etsy, which provide platforms for smaller sellers, also haven' t been collecting sales tax nationwide. Under the ruling Thursday, states can pass laws requiring out-of-state sellers to collect the state's sales tax from customers and send it to the state.

Retail trade groups praised the ruling, saying it levels the playing field for local and online businesses. The losers, said retail analyst Neil Saunders, are online-only retailers, especially smaller ones. Those retailers may face headaches complying with various state sales tax laws. The Small Business & Entrepreneurship Council advocacy group said in a statement, "Small businesses and internet entrepreneurs are not well served at all by this decision."

The Supreme Court decision Thursday will _____.

States will be able to force more people to pay sales tax when they make online purchases under a Supreme Court decision Thursday that will leave shoppers with lighter wallets but is a big financial win for states.

The Superme Court' s opinion Thursday overruled a pair of decades-old decisions that states said cost them billions of dollars in lost revenue annually. The decisions made it more difficult for states to collect sales tax on certain online purchases.

The cases the court overturned said that if a business was shipping a customer' s purchase to a state where the business didn't have a physical presence such as a warehouse or office, the business didn' t have to collect sales tax for the state. Customers were generally responsible for paying the sales tax to the state themselves if they weren't charged it, but most didn' t realize they owed it and few paid.

Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote that the previous decisions were flawed. "Each year the physical presence rule becomes further removed from economic reality and results in significant revenue losses to the States," he wrote in an opinion joined by four other justices. Kennedy wrote that the rule "limited states' ability to seek long-term prosperity and has prevented market participants from competing on an even playing field."

The ruling is a victory for big chains with a presence in many states, since they usually collect sales tax on online purchases already. Now, rivals will be charging sales tax where they hadn' t before. Big chains have been collecting sales tax nationwide because they typically have physical stores in whatever state a purchase is being shipped to. Amazon.com, with its network of warehouses, also collects sales tax in every state that charges it, though third-party sellers who use the site don't have to.

Until now, many sellers that have a physical presence in only a single state or a few states have been able to avoid charging sales taxes when they ship to addresses outside those states. Sellers that use eBay and Etsy, which provide platforms for smaller sellers, also haven' t been collecting sales tax nationwide. Under the ruling Thursday, states can pass laws requiring out-of-state sellers to collect the state's sales tax from customers and send it to the state.

Retail trade groups praised the ruling, saying it levels the playing field for local and online businesses. The losers, said retail analyst Neil Saunders, are online-only retailers, especially smaller ones. Those retailers may face headaches complying with various state sales tax laws. The Small Business & Entrepreneurship Council advocacy group said in a statement, "Small businesses and internet entrepreneurs are not well served at all by this decision."

It can be learned from Paragraphs 2 and 3 that the overruled desicisuns _____.

States will be able to force more people to pay sales tax when they make online purchases under a Supreme Court decision Thursday that will leave shoppers with lighter wallets but is a big financial win for states.

The Superme Court' s opinion Thursday overruled a pair of decades-old decisions that states said cost them billions of dollars in lost revenue annually. The decisions made it more difficult for states to collect sales tax on certain online purchases.

The cases the court overturned said that if a business was shipping a customer' s purchase to a state where the business didn't have a physical presence such as a warehouse or office, the business didn' t have to collect sales tax for the state. Customers were generally responsible for paying the sales tax to the state themselves if they weren't charged it, but most didn' t realize they owed it and few paid.

Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote that the previous decisions were flawed. "Each year the physical presence rule becomes further removed from economic reality and results in significant revenue losses to the States," he wrote in an opinion joined by four other justices. Kennedy wrote that the rule "limited states' ability to seek long-term prosperity and has prevented market participants from competing on an even playing field."

The ruling is a victory for big chains with a presence in many states, since they usually collect sales tax on online purchases already. Now, rivals will be charging sales tax where they hadn' t before. Big chains have been collecting sales tax nationwide because they typically have physical stores in whatever state a purchase is being shipped to. Amazon.com, with its network of warehouses, also collects sales tax in every state that charges it, though third-party sellers who use the site don't have to.

Until now, many sellers that have a physical presence in only a single state or a few states have been able to avoid charging sales taxes when they ship to addresses outside those states. Sellers that use eBay and Etsy, which provide platforms for smaller sellers, also haven' t been collecting sales tax nationwide. Under the ruling Thursday, states can pass laws requiring out-of-state sellers to collect the state's sales tax from customers and send it to the state.

Retail trade groups praised the ruling, saying it levels the playing field for local and online businesses. The losers, said retail analyst Neil Saunders, are online-only retailers, especially smaller ones. Those retailers may face headaches complying with various state sales tax laws. The Small Business & Entrepreneurship Council advocacy group said in a statement, "Small businesses and internet entrepreneurs are not well served at all by this decision."

According to Justice Anthony Kennedy, the physical presence rule has _____.

States will be able to force more people to pay sales tax when they make online purchases under a Supreme Court decision Thursday that will leave shoppers with lighter wallets but is a big financial win for states.

The Superme Court' s opinion Thursday overruled a pair of decades-old decisions that states said cost them billions of dollars in lost revenue annually. The decisions made it more difficult for states to collect sales tax on certain online purchases.

The cases the court overturned said that if a business was shipping a customer' s purchase to a state where the business didn't have a physical presence such as a warehouse or office, the business didn' t have to collect sales tax for the state. Customers were generally responsible for paying the sales tax to the state themselves if they weren't charged it, but most didn' t realize they owed it and few paid.

Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote that the previous decisions were flawed. "Each year the physical presence rule becomes further removed from economic reality and results in significant revenue losses to the States," he wrote in an opinion joined by four other justices. Kennedy wrote that the rule "limited states' ability to seek long-term prosperity and has prevented market participants from competing on an even playing field."

The ruling is a victory for big chains with a presence in many states, since they usually collect sales tax on online purchases already. Now, rivals will be charging sales tax where they hadn' t before. Big chains have been collecting sales tax nationwide because they typically have physical stores in whatever state a purchase is being shipped to. Amazon.com, with its network of warehouses, also collects sales tax in every state that charges it, though third-party sellers who use the site don't have to.

Until now, many sellers that have a physical presence in only a single state or a few states have been able to avoid charging sales taxes when they ship to addresses outside those states. Sellers that use eBay and Etsy, which provide platforms for smaller sellers, also haven' t been collecting sales tax nationwide. Under the ruling Thursday, states can pass laws requiring out-of-state sellers to collect the state's sales tax from customers and send it to the state.

Retail trade groups praised the ruling, saying it levels the playing field for local and online businesses. The losers, said retail analyst Neil Saunders, are online-only retailers, especially smaller ones. Those retailers may face headaches complying with various state sales tax laws. The Small Business & Entrepreneurship Council advocacy group said in a statement, "Small businesses and internet entrepreneurs are not well served at all by this decision."

Who are most likely to welcome the Supreme Court ruling _____.

States will be able to force more people to pay sales tax when they make online purchases under a Supreme Court decision Thursday that will leave shoppers with lighter wallets but is a big financial win for states.

The Superme Court' s opinion Thursday overruled a pair of decades-old decisions that states said cost them billions of dollars in lost revenue annually. The decisions made it more difficult for states to collect sales tax on certain online purchases.

The cases the court overturned said that if a business was shipping a customer' s purchase to a state where the business didn't have a physical presence such as a warehouse or office, the business didn' t have to collect sales tax for the state. Customers were generally responsible for paying the sales tax to the state themselves if they weren't charged it, but most didn' t realize they owed it and few paid.

Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote that the previous decisions were flawed. "Each year the physical presence rule becomes further removed from economic reality and results in significant revenue losses to the States," he wrote in an opinion joined by four other justices. Kennedy wrote that the rule "limited states' ability to seek long-term prosperity and has prevented market participants from competing on an even playing field."

The ruling is a victory for big chains with a presence in many states, since they usually collect sales tax on online purchases already. Now, rivals will be charging sales tax where they hadn' t before. Big chains have been collecting sales tax nationwide because they typically have physical stores in whatever state a purchase is being shipped to. Amazon.com, with its network of warehouses, also collects sales tax in every state that charges it, though third-party sellers who use the site don't have to.

Until now, many sellers that have a physical presence in only a single state or a few states have been able to avoid charging sales taxes when they ship to addresses outside those states. Sellers that use eBay and Etsy, which provide platforms for smaller sellers, also haven' t been collecting sales tax nationwide. Under the ruling Thursday, states can pass laws requiring out-of-state sellers to collect the state's sales tax from customers and send it to the state.

Retail trade groups praised the ruling, saying it levels the playing field for local and online businesses. The losers, said retail analyst Neil Saunders, are online-only retailers, especially smaller ones. Those retailers may face headaches complying with various state sales tax laws. The Small Business & Entrepreneurship Council advocacy group said in a statement, "Small businesses and internet entrepreneurs are not well served at all by this decision."

In dealing with the Supreme Court decision Thursday the author _____.

A. These tools can help you win every argument-not in the unhelpful sense of beating your opponents but in the better sense of learning about the issues that divide people learning why they disagree with us and learning to talk and work together with them. If we readjust our view of arguments-from a verbal fight or tennis game to a reasoned exchange through which we all gain mutual respect, and understanding—then we change the very nature of what it means to "win" an argument.

B. Of course many discussions are not so successful. Still, we need to be careful not to accuse opponents of bad arguments too quickly. We need to learn how to evaluate them properly. A large part of evaluation is calling out bad arguments, but we also need to admit good arguments by opponents and to apply the same critical standards to ourselves. Humility requires you to recognize weakness in your own arguments and sometimes also to accept reasons on the oppsite side.

C. None of these will be easy but you can start even if others refuse to. Next time you state your position, formulate an argument for what you claim and honestly ask yourself whether your argument is any good. Next time you talk with someone who takes a stand, ask them to give you a reason for their view. Spell out their argument fully and charitably. Assess its strength impartially. Raise objections and listen carefully to their replies.

D. Carnegie would be right if arguments were fights, which is how we often think of them. Like physical fights, verbal fights can leave both sides bloodied. Even when you win, you end up no better off. Your prospects would be almost as dismal if arguments were even just competitions-like

say, tennis games. Pairs of opponents hit the ball back and forth until one winner emerges from all who entered. Everybody else loses. This kind of thinking is why so many people try to avoid arguments, especially about politics and religion.

E. In his 1936 work How to Win Friends and Influence People, Dale Carnegie wrote: There is only one way. to get the best of an arguments-and that is to avoid it. This aversion to arguments is common, but it depends on a mistaken view of arguments that causes profound problems for our personal and social lives-and in many ways misses the point of arguing in the first place.

F. These views of arguments also undermine reason. If you see a conversation as a fight or competition, you can win by cheating as long as you don't get caught. You will be happy to convince people with bad arguments. You can call their views stupid, or joke about how ignorant they are. None of these tricks will help you understand them, their positions or the issues that divide you, but they can help you win-in one way.

G. There is a better way to win arguments. Imagine that you favor increasing the minimum wage in our state, and I do not. If you yell, "Yes," and I yell. "No," neither of us learns anything. We neither understand nor respect each other, and we have no basis for compromise or cooperation. In contrast, suppose you give a reasonable argument: that full-time workers should not have to live in poverty. Then I counter with another reasonable argument: that a higher minimum wage will force businesses to employ fewer people for less time. Now we can understand each other's positions and recognize our shared values, since we both care about needy workers.

41_____.→42_____.→F→43_____.→44_____.→C→45_____.

_____.

A. These tools can help you win every argument-not in the unhelpful sense of beating your opponents but in the better sense of learning about the issues that divide people learning why they disagree with us and learning to talk and work together with them. If we readjust our view of arguments-from a verbal fight or tennis game to a reasoned exchange through which we all gain mutual respect, and understanding—then we change the very nature of what it means to "win" an argument.

B. Of course many discussions are not so successful. Still, we need to be careful not to accuse opponents of bad arguments too quickly. We need to learn how to evaluate them properly. A large part of evaluation is calling out bad arguments, but we also need to admit good arguments by opponents and to apply the same critical standards to ourselves. Humility requires you to recognize weakness in your own arguments and sometimes also to accept reasons on the oppsite side.

C. None of these will be easy but you can start even if others refuse to. Next time you state your position, formulate an argument for what you claim and honestly ask yourself whether your argument is any good. Next time you talk with someone who takes a stand, ask them to give you a reason for their view. Spell out their argument fully and charitably. Assess its strength impartially. Raise objections and listen carefully to their replies.

D. Carnegie would be right if arguments were fights, which is how we often think of them. Like physical fights, verbal fights can leave both sides bloodied. Even when you win, you end up no better off. Your prospects would be almost as dismal if arguments were even just competitions-like

say, tennis games. Pairs of opponents hit the ball back and forth until one winner emerges from all who entered. Everybody else loses. This kind of thinking is why so many people try to avoid arguments, especially about politics and religion.

E. In his 1936 work How to Win Friends and Influence People, Dale Carnegie wrote: There is only one way. to get the best of an arguments-and that is to avoid it. This aversion to arguments is common, but it depends on a mistaken view of arguments that causes profound problems for our personal and social lives-and in many ways misses the point of arguing in the first place.

F. These views of arguments also undermine reason. If you see a conversation as a fight or competition, you can win by cheating as long as you don't get caught. You will be happy to convince people with bad arguments. You can call their views stupid, or joke about how ignorant they are. None of these tricks will help you understand them, their positions or the issues that divide you, but they can help you win-in one way.

G. There is a better way to win arguments. Imagine that you favor increasing the minimum wage in our state, and I do not. If you yell, "Yes," and I yell. "No," neither of us learns anything. We neither understand nor respect each other, and we have no basis for compromise or cooperation. In contrast, suppose you give a reasonable argument: that full-time workers should not have to live in poverty. Then I counter with another reasonable argument: that a higher minimum wage will force businesses to employ fewer people for less time. Now we can understand each other's positions and recognize our shared values, since we both care about needy workers.

41_____.→42_____.→F→43_____.→44_____.→C→45_____.

_____.

A. These tools can help you win every argument-not in the unhelpful sense of beating your opponents but in the better sense of learning about the issues that divide people learning why they disagree with us and learning to talk and work together with them. If we readjust our view of arguments-from a verbal fight or tennis game to a reasoned exchange through which we all gain mutual respect, and understanding—then we change the very nature of what it means to "win" an argument.

B. Of course many discussions are not so successful. Still, we need to be careful not to accuse opponents of bad arguments too quickly. We need to learn how to evaluate them properly. A large part of evaluation is calling out bad arguments, but we also need to admit good arguments by opponents and to apply the same critical standards to ourselves. Humility requires you to recognize weakness in your own arguments and sometimes also to accept reasons on the oppsite side.

C. None of these will be easy but you can start even if others refuse to. Next time you state your position, formulate an argument for what you claim and honestly ask yourself whether your argument is any good. Next time you talk with someone who takes a stand, ask them to give you a reason for their view. Spell out their argument fully and charitably. Assess its strength impartially. Raise objections and listen carefully to their replies.

D. Carnegie would be right if arguments were fights, which is how we often think of them. Like physical fights, verbal fights can leave both sides bloodied. Even when you win, you end up no better off. Your prospects would be almost as dismal if arguments were even just competitions-like

say, tennis games. Pairs of opponents hit the ball back and forth until one winner emerges from all who entered. Everybody else loses. This kind of thinking is why so many people try to avoid arguments, especially about politics and religion.

E. In his 1936 work How to Win Friends and Influence People, Dale Carnegie wrote: There is only one way. to get the best of an arguments-and that is to avoid it. This aversion to arguments is common, but it depends on a mistaken view of arguments that causes profound problems for our personal and social lives-and in many ways misses the point of arguing in the first place.

F. These views of arguments also undermine reason. If you see a conversation as a fight or competition, you can win by cheating as long as you don't get caught. You will be happy to convince people with bad arguments. You can call their views stupid, or joke about how ignorant they are. None of these tricks will help you understand them, their positions or the issues that divide you, but they can help you win-in one way.

G. There is a better way to win arguments. Imagine that you favor increasing the minimum wage in our state, and I do not. If you yell, "Yes," and I yell. "No," neither of us learns anything. We neither understand nor respect each other, and we have no basis for compromise or cooperation. In contrast, suppose you give a reasonable argument: that full-time workers should not have to live in poverty. Then I counter with another reasonable argument: that a higher minimum wage will force businesses to employ fewer people for less time. Now we can understand each other's positions and recognize our shared values, since we both care about needy workers.

41_____.→42_____.→F→43_____.→44_____.→C→45_____.

_____.

A. These tools can help you win every argument-not in the unhelpful sense of beating your opponents but in the better sense of learning about the issues that divide people learning why they disagree with us and learning to talk and work together with them. If we readjust our view of arguments-from a verbal fight or tennis game to a reasoned exchange through which we all gain mutual respect, and understanding—then we change the very nature of what it means to "win" an argument.

B. Of course many discussions are not so successful. Still, we need to be careful not to accuse opponents of bad arguments too quickly. We need to learn how to evaluate them properly. A large part of evaluation is calling out bad arguments, but we also need to admit good arguments by opponents and to apply the same critical standards to ourselves. Humility requires you to recognize weakness in your own arguments and sometimes also to accept reasons on the oppsite side.

C. None of these will be easy but you can start even if others refuse to. Next time you state your position, formulate an argument for what you claim and honestly ask yourself whether your argument is any good. Next time you talk with someone who takes a stand, ask them to give you a reason for their view. Spell out their argument fully and charitably. Assess its strength impartially. Raise objections and listen carefully to their replies.

D. Carnegie would be right if arguments were fights, which is how we often think of them. Like physical fights, verbal fights can leave both sides bloodied. Even when you win, you end up no better off. Your prospects would be almost as dismal if arguments were even just competitions-like

say, tennis games. Pairs of opponents hit the ball back and forth until one winner emerges from all who entered. Everybody else loses. This kind of thinking is why so many people try to avoid arguments, especially about politics and religion.

E. In his 1936 work How to Win Friends and Influence People, Dale Carnegie wrote: There is only one way. to get the best of an arguments-and that is to avoid it. This aversion to arguments is common, but it depends on a mistaken view of arguments that causes profound problems for our personal and social lives-and in many ways misses the point of arguing in the first place.

F. These views of arguments also undermine reason. If you see a conversation as a fight or competition, you can win by cheating as long as you don't get caught. You will be happy to convince people with bad arguments. You can call their views stupid, or joke about how ignorant they are. None of these tricks will help you understand them, their positions or the issues that divide you, but they can help you win-in one way.

G. There is a better way to win arguments. Imagine that you favor increasing the minimum wage in our state, and I do not. If you yell, "Yes," and I yell. "No," neither of us learns anything. We neither understand nor respect each other, and we have no basis for compromise or cooperation. In contrast, suppose you give a reasonable argument: that full-time workers should not have to live in poverty. Then I counter with another reasonable argument: that a higher minimum wage will force businesses to employ fewer people for less time. Now we can understand each other's positions and recognize our shared values, since we both care about needy workers.

41_____.→42_____.→F→43_____.→44_____.→C→45_____.

_____.

A. These tools can help you win every argument-not in the unhelpful sense of beating your opponents but in the better sense of learning about the issues that divide people learning why they disagree with us and learning to talk and work together with them. If we readjust our view of arguments-from a verbal fight or tennis game to a reasoned exchange through which we all gain mutual respect, and understanding—then we change the very nature of what it means to "win" an argument.

B. Of course many discussions are not so successful. Still, we need to be careful not to accuse opponents of bad arguments too quickly. We need to learn how to evaluate them properly. A large part of evaluation is calling out bad arguments, but we also need to admit good arguments by opponents and to apply the same critical standards to ourselves. Humility requires you to recognize weakness in your own arguments and sometimes also to accept reasons on the oppsite side.

C. None of these will be easy but you can start even if others refuse to. Next time you state your position, formulate an argument for what you claim and honestly ask yourself whether your argument is any good. Next time you talk with someone who takes a stand, ask them to give you a reason for their view. Spell out their argument fully and charitably. Assess its strength impartially. Raise objections and listen carefully to their replies.

D. Carnegie would be right if arguments were fights, which is how we often think of them. Like physical fights, verbal fights can leave both sides bloodied. Even when you win, you end up no better off. Your prospects would be almost as dismal if arguments were even just competitions-like

say, tennis games. Pairs of opponents hit the ball back and forth until one winner emerges from all who entered. Everybody else loses. This kind of thinking is why so many people try to avoid arguments, especially about politics and religion.

E. In his 1936 work How to Win Friends and Influence People, Dale Carnegie wrote: There is only one way. to get the best of an arguments-and that is to avoid it. This aversion to arguments is common, but it depends on a mistaken view of arguments that causes profound problems for our personal and social lives-and in many ways misses the point of arguing in the first place.

F. These views of arguments also undermine reason. If you see a conversation as a fight or competition, you can win by cheating as long as you don't get caught. You will be happy to convince people with bad arguments. You can call their views stupid, or joke about how ignorant they are. None of these tricks will help you understand them, their positions or the issues that divide you, but they can help you win-in one way.

G. There is a better way to win arguments. Imagine that you favor increasing the minimum wage in our state, and I do not. If you yell, "Yes," and I yell. "No," neither of us learns anything. We neither understand nor respect each other, and we have no basis for compromise or cooperation. In contrast, suppose you give a reasonable argument: that full-time workers should not have to live in poverty. Then I counter with another reasonable argument: that a higher minimum wage will force businesses to employ fewer people for less time. Now we can understand each other's positions and recognize our shared values, since we both care about needy workers.

41_____.→42_____.→F→43_____.→44_____.→C→45_____.

_____.

It wasn' t until after my retirement that I had the time to read scientific papers in medical journals with anything like close attention. Until then, I had, like most doctors, read the authors' conclusions and assumed that they bore some necessary relation to what had gone before. I had also naively assumed that the editors had done their job and checked the intellectual coherence and probity of the contents of their journals.

It was only after I started to write a weekly column about the medical journals, and began to read scientific papers from beginning to end, that I realized just how bad—inaccurate, misleading, sloppy, illogical—much of the medical literature, even in the best journals, frequently was. My discovery pleased and reassured me in a way: for it showed me that, even in advancing age, I was still capable of being surprised.

I came to recognize various signs of a bad paper: the kind of paper that purports to show that people who eat more than one kilo of broccoli a week were 1.17 times more likely than those who eat less to suffer late in life from pernicious anaemia. （46）There is a great deal of this kind of nonsense in the medical journals which, when taken up by broadcasters and the lay press, generates both health scares and short-lived dietary enthusiasms.

Why is so much bad science published? A recent paper, titled 'The Natural Selection of Bad Science', published on the Royal Society’s open science website, attempts to answer this intriguing and important question.

According to the authors, the problem is not merely that people do bad science, as they have always done, but that our current system of career advancement positively encourages it. They quote ananonymous researcher who said pithily: 'Poor methods get results.' What is important is not truth, let alone importance, but publication, which has become almost an end in itself. There has been a kind of inflationary process at work: （47）nowadays anyone applying for a research post has to have published twice the number of papers that would have been required for the same post only 10 years ago. Never mind the quality, then, count the number. It is at least an objective measure.

In addition to the pressure to publish, there is a preference in journals for positive rather than negative results. To prove that factor a has no effect whatever on outcome b may be important in the sense that it refutes a hypothesis, but it is not half so captivating as that factor a has some marginally positive statistical association with outcome b. It may be an elementary principle of statistics that association is not causation, but in practice everyone forgets it.

The easiest way to generate positive associations is to do bad science, for example by trawling through a whole lot of data without a prior hypothesis. For example, if you took 100 dietary factors and tried to associate them with flat feet, you would find some of them that were associated with that condition, associations so strong that at first sight they would appear not to have arisen by chance.

Once it has been shown that the consumption of, shall we say, red cabbage is associated with flat feet, one of two things can happen: someone will try to reproduce the result, or no one will, in which case it will enter scientific mythology. The penalties for having published results which are not reproducible, and prove before long to be misleading, usually do not cancel out the prestige of having published them in the first place: and therefore it is better, from the career point of view, to publish junk than to publish nothing at all. A long list of publications, all of them valueless, is always impressive.

（48）Attempts have been made to curb this kind tendency, to incorporate some measure of quality as well as quantity into the assessment of an applicant' s published papers. This is the famed citation index, that is to say the number of times a paper has been quoted elsewhere in the scientific literature, the assumption being that an important paper will be cited more often than one of small account. （49）This would be reasonable enough if it were not for the fact that scientists can easily arrange to cite themselves in their future publications, or get associates to do so for them in return for similar favors.

Boiling down an individual' s output to simple, objective metrics, such as number of publications or journal impacts, entails considerable savings in time, energy and ambiguity. Unfortunately, the long-term costs of using simple quantitative metrics to assess researcher merit are likely to be quite great.

（50）If we are serious about ensuring that our science is both meaningful and reproducible, we must ensure that our institutions incentivize that kind of science.

There is a great deal of this kind of nonsense in the medical journals which, when taken up by broadcasters and the lay press, generates both health scares and short-lived dietary enthusiasms.

It wasn' t until after my retirement that I had the time to read scientific papers in medical journals with anything like close attention. Until then, I had, like most doctors, read the authors' conclusions and assumed that they bore some necessary relation to what had gone before. I had also naively assumed that the editors had done their job and checked the intellectual coherence and probity of the contents of their journals.

It was only after I started to write a weekly column about the medical journals, and began to read scientific papers from beginning to end, that I realized just how bad—inaccurate, misleading, sloppy, illogical—much of the medical literature, even in the best journals, frequently was. My discovery pleased and reassured me in a way: for it showed me that, even in advancing age, I was still capable of being surprised.

I came to recognize various signs of a bad paper: the kind of paper that purports to show that people who eat more than one kilo of broccoli a week were 1.17 times more likely than those who eat less to suffer late in life from pernicious anaemia. （46）There is a great deal of this kind of nonsense in the medical journals which, when taken up by broadcasters and the lay press, generates both health scares and short-lived dietary enthusiasms.

Why is so much bad science published? A recent paper, titled 'The Natural Selection of Bad Science', published on the Royal Society’s open science website, attempts to answer this intriguing and important question.

According to the authors, the problem is not merely that people do bad science, as they have always done, but that our current system of career advancement positively encourages it. They quote ananonymous researcher who said pithily: 'Poor methods get results.' What is important is not truth, let alone importance, but publication, which has become almost an end in itself. There has been a kind of inflationary process at work: （47）nowadays anyone applying for a research post has to have published twice the number of papers that would have been required for the same post only 10 years ago. Never mind the quality, then, count the number. It is at least an objective measure.

In addition to the pressure to publish, there is a preference in journals for positive rather than negative results. To prove that factor a has no effect whatever on outcome b may be important in the sense that it refutes a hypothesis, but it is not half so captivating as that factor a has some marginally positive statistical association with outcome b. It may be an elementary principle of statistics that association is not causation, but in practice everyone forgets it.

The easiest way to generate positive associations is to do bad science, for example by trawling through a whole lot of data without a prior hypothesis. For example, if you took 100 dietary factors and tried to associate them with flat feet, you would find some of them that were associated with that condition, associations so strong that at first sight they would appear not to have arisen by chance.

Once it has been shown that the consumption of, shall we say, red cabbage is associated with flat feet, one of two things can happen: someone will try to reproduce the result, or no one will, in which case it will enter scientific mythology. The penalties for having published results which are not reproducible, and prove before long to be misleading, usually do not cancel out the prestige of having published them in the first place: and therefore it is better, from the career point of view, to publish junk than to publish nothing at all. A long list of publications, all of them valueless, is always impressive.

（48）Attempts have been made to curb this kind tendency, to incorporate some measure of quality as well as quantity into the assessment of an applicant' s published papers. This is the famed citation index, that is to say the number of times a paper has been quoted elsewhere in the scientific literature, the assumption being that an important paper will be cited more often than one of small account. （49）This would be reasonable enough if it were not for the fact that scientists can easily arrange to cite themselves in their future publications, or get associates to do so for them in return for similar favors.

Boiling down an individual' s output to simple, objective metrics, such as number of publications or journal impacts, entails considerable savings in time, energy and ambiguity. Unfortunately, the long-term costs of using simple quantitative metrics to assess researcher merit are likely to be quite great.

（50）If we are serious about ensuring that our science is both meaningful and reproducible, we must ensure that our institutions incentivize that kind of science.

nowadays anyone applying for a research post has to have published twice the number of papers that would have been required for the same post only 10 years ago.

It wasn' t until after my retirement that I had the time to read scientific papers in medical journals with anything like close attention. Until then, I had, like most doctors, read the authors' conclusions and assumed that they bore some necessary relation to what had gone before. I had also naively assumed that the editors had done their job and checked the intellectual coherence and probity of the contents of their journals.

It was only after I started to write a weekly column about the medical journals, and began to read scientific papers from beginning to end, that I realized just how bad—inaccurate, misleading, sloppy, illogical—much of the medical literature, even in the best journals, frequently was. My discovery pleased and reassured me in a way: for it showed me that, even in advancing age, I was still capable of being surprised.

I came to recognize various signs of a bad paper: the kind of paper that purports to show that people who eat more than one kilo of broccoli a week were 1.17 times more likely than those who eat less to suffer late in life from pernicious anaemia. （46）There is a great deal of this kind of nonsense in the medical journals which, when taken up by broadcasters and the lay press, generates both health scares and short-lived dietary enthusiasms.

Why is so much bad science published? A recent paper, titled 'The Natural Selection of Bad Science', published on the Royal Society’s open science website, attempts to answer this intriguing and important question.

According to the authors, the problem is not merely that people do bad science, as they have always done, but that our current system of career advancement positively encourages it. They quote ananonymous researcher who said pithily: 'Poor methods get results.' What is important is not truth, let alone importance, but publication, which has become almost an end in itself. There has been a kind of inflationary process at work: （47）nowadays anyone applying for a research post has to have published twice the number of papers that would have been required for the same post only 10 years ago. Never mind the quality, then, count the number. It is at least an objective measure.

In addition to the pressure to publish, there is a preference in journals for positive rather than negative results. To prove that factor a has no effect whatever on outcome b may be important in the sense that it refutes a hypothesis, but it is not half so captivating as that factor a has some marginally positive statistical association with outcome b. It may be an elementary principle of statistics that association is not causation, but in practice everyone forgets it.

The easiest way to generate positive associations is to do bad science, for example by trawling through a whole lot of data without a prior hypothesis. For example, if you took 100 dietary factors and tried to associate them with flat feet, you would find some of them that were associated with that condition, associations so strong that at first sight they would appear not to have arisen by chance.

Once it has been shown that the consumption of, shall we say, red cabbage is associated with flat feet, one of two things can happen: someone will try to reproduce the result, or no one will, in which case it will enter scientific mythology. The penalties for having published results which are not reproducible, and prove before long to be misleading, usually do not cancel out the prestige of having published them in the first place: and therefore it is better, from the career point of view, to publish junk than to publish nothing at all. A long list of publications, all of them valueless, is always impressive.

（48）Attempts have been made to curb this kind tendency, to incorporate some measure of quality as well as quantity into the assessment of an applicant' s published papers. This is the famed citation index, that is to say the number of times a paper has been quoted elsewhere in the scientific literature, the assumption being that an important paper will be cited more often than one of small account. （49）This would be reasonable enough if it were not for the fact that scientists can easily arrange to cite themselves in their future publications, or get associates to do so for them in return for similar favors.

Boiling down an individual' s output to simple, objective metrics, such as number of publications or journal impacts, entails considerable savings in time, energy and ambiguity. Unfortunately, the long-term costs of using simple quantitative metrics to assess researcher merit are likely to be quite great.

（50）If we are serious about ensuring that our science is both meaningful and reproducible, we must ensure that our institutions incentivize that kind of science.

Attempts have been made to curb this kind tendency to incorporate some measure of quality as well as quantity into the assessment of an applicant' s published papers.

It wasn' t until after my retirement that I had the time to read scientific papers in medical journals with anything like close attention. Until then, I had, like most doctors, read the authors' conclusions and assumed that they bore some necessary relation to what had gone before. I had also naively assumed that the editors had done their job and checked the intellectual coherence and probity of the contents of their journals.

It was only after I started to write a weekly column about the medical journals, and began to read scientific papers from beginning to end, that I realized just how bad—inaccurate, misleading, sloppy, illogical—much of the medical literature, even in the best journals, frequently was. My discovery pleased and reassured me in a way: for it showed me that, even in advancing age, I was still capable of being surprised.

I came to recognize various signs of a bad paper: the kind of paper that purports to show that people who eat more than one kilo of broccoli a week were 1.17 times more likely than those who eat less to suffer late in life from pernicious anaemia. （46）There is a great deal of this kind of nonsense in the medical journals which, when taken up by broadcasters and the lay press, generates both health scares and short-lived dietary enthusiasms.

Why is so much bad science published? A recent paper, titled 'The Natural Selection of Bad Science', published on the Royal Society’s open science website, attempts to answer this intriguing and important question.

According to the authors, the problem is not merely that people do bad science, as they have always done, but that our current system of career advancement positively encourages it. They quote ananonymous researcher who said pithily: 'Poor methods get results.' What is important is not truth, let alone importance, but publication, which has become almost an end in itself. There has been a kind of inflationary process at work: （47）nowadays anyone applying for a research post has to have published twice the number of papers that would have been required for the same post only 10 years ago. Never mind the quality, then, count the number. It is at least an objective measure.

In addition to the pressure to publish, there is a preference in journals for positive rather than negative results. To prove that factor a has no effect whatever on outcome b may be important in the sense that it refutes a hypothesis, but it is not half so captivating as that factor a has some marginally positive statistical association with outcome b. It may be an elementary principle of statistics that association is not causation, but in practice everyone forgets it.

The easiest way to generate positive associations is to do bad science, for example by trawling through a whole lot of data without a prior hypothesis. For example, if you took 100 dietary factors and tried to associate them with flat feet, you would find some of them that were associated with that condition, associations so strong that at first sight they would appear not to have arisen by chance.

Once it has been shown that the consumption of, shall we say, red cabbage is associated with flat feet, one of two things can happen: someone will try to reproduce the result, or no one will, in which case it will enter scientific mythology. The penalties for having published results which are not reproducible, and prove before long to be misleading, usually do not cancel out the prestige of having published them in the first place: and therefore it is better, from the career point of view, to publish junk than to publish nothing at all. A long list of publications, all of them valueless, is always impressive.

（48）Attempts have been made to curb this kind tendency, to incorporate some measure of quality as well as quantity into the assessment of an applicant' s published papers. This is the famed citation index, that is to say the number of times a paper has been quoted elsewhere in the scientific literature, the assumption being that an important paper will be cited more often than one of small account. （49）This would be reasonable enough if it were not for the fact that scientists can easily arrange to cite themselves in their future publications, or get associates to do so for them in return for similar favors.

Boiling down an individual' s output to simple, objective metrics, such as number of publications or journal impacts, entails considerable savings in time, energy and ambiguity. Unfortunately, the long-term costs of using simple quantitative metrics to assess researcher merit are likely to be quite great.

（50）If we are serious about ensuring that our science is both meaningful and reproducible, we must ensure that our institutions incentivize that kind of science.

This would be reasonable enough if it were not for the fact that scientists can easily arrange to cite themselves in their future publications, or get associates to do so for them in return for similar favors.

It wasn' t until after my retirement that I had the time to read scientific papers in medical journals with anything like close attention. Until then, I had, like most doctors, read the authors' conclusions and assumed that they bore some necessary relation to what had gone before. I had also naively assumed that the editors had done their job and checked the intellectual coherence and probity of the contents of their journals.

It was only after I started to write a weekly column about the medical journals, and began to read scientific papers from beginning to end, that I realized just how bad—inaccurate, misleading, sloppy, illogical—much of the medical literature, even in the best journals, frequently was. My discovery pleased and reassured me in a way: for it showed me that, even in advancing age, I was still capable of being surprised.

I came to recognize various signs of a bad paper: the kind of paper that purports to show that people who eat more than one kilo of broccoli a week were 1.17 times more likely than those who eat less to suffer late in life from pernicious anaemia. （46）There is a great deal of this kind of nonsense in the medical journals which, when taken up by broadcasters and the lay press, generates both health scares and short-lived dietary enthusiasms.

Why is so much bad science published? A recent paper, titled 'The Natural Selection of Bad Science', published on the Royal Society’s open science website, attempts to answer this intriguing and important question.

According to the authors, the problem is not merely that people do bad science, as they have always done, but that our current system of career advancement positively encourages it. They quote ananonymous researcher who said pithily: 'Poor methods get results.' What is important is not truth, let alone importance, but publication, which has become almost an end in itself. There has been a kind of inflationary process at work: （47）nowadays anyone applying for a research post has to have published twice the number of papers that would have been required for the same post only 10 years ago. Never mind the quality, then, count the number. It is at least an objective measure.

In addition to the pressure to publish, there is a preference in journals for positive rather than negative results. To prove that factor a has no effect whatever on outcome b may be important in the sense that it refutes a hypothesis, but it is not half so captivating as that factor a has some marginally positive statistical association with outcome b. It may be an elementary principle of statistics that association is not causation, but in practice everyone forgets it.

The easiest way to generate positive associations is to do bad science, for example by trawling through a whole lot of data without a prior hypothesis. For example, if you took 100 dietary factors and tried to associate them with flat feet, you would find some of them that were associated with that condition, associations so strong that at first sight they would appear not to have arisen by chance.

Once it has been shown that the consumption of, shall we say, red cabbage is associated with flat feet, one of two things can happen: someone will try to reproduce the result, or no one will, in which case it will enter scientific mythology. The penalties for having published results which are not reproducible, and prove before long to be misleading, usually do not cancel out the prestige of having published them in the first place: and therefore it is better, from the career point of view, to publish junk than to publish nothing at all. A long list of publications, all of them valueless, is always impressive.

（48）Attempts have been made to curb this kind tendency, to incorporate some measure of quality as well as quantity into the assessment of an applicant' s published papers. This is the famed citation index, that is to say the number of times a paper has been quoted elsewhere in the scientific literature, the assumption being that an important paper will be cited more often than one of small account. （49）This would be reasonable enough if it were not for the fact that scientists can easily arrange to cite themselves in their future publications, or get associates to do so for them in return for similar favors.

Boiling down an individual' s output to simple, objective metrics, such as number of publications or journal impacts, entails considerable savings in time, energy and ambiguity. Unfortunately, the long-term costs of using simple quantitative metrics to assess researcher merit are likely to be quite great.

（50）If we are serious about ensuring that our science is both meaningful and reproducible, we must ensure that our institutions incentivize that kind of science.

If we are serious about ensuring that our science is both meaningful and reproducible, we must ensure that our institutions incentivize that kind of science.

Suppse you are working for the "Aiding rurd Primary School" project of your university write an email to answer the inquiry from an international student volunter, specifying the details of the project.

You should write about 100 words on the ANSWER SHEET .

Do not use your own name in the email ,use "Li Ming" instead.

Directions:

Write an essay of 160-180 words based on the following picture.

In your essay, you should

1) describe the picture briefly;

2) interpret its intended meaning;

3) give your comments.